Safegurading health information and systems Essay

Safegurading health information and systems - Essay Example The other most important wording is the ethical statement. These act as a guide to the ethical behaviors the health care workers such as nurses are supposed to abide by when in use of the information systems (Wager, Lee & Glaser, 2013). This wording is important as it saves on disciplinary actions and prevents nurses and other health care workers from breaching the ethical code of conduct. Lastly, the other most important wording necessary to be included in these health systems is the patient management statement. There are standards of patient management necessary for the nurse to apply in all patients and they should be openly stipulated and clearly worded in the information system for the benefit and frequent reminder of them to the nurses when attending to their patients (Mettler & Raptis, 2012). Failure to follow these statements leads to legal actions being taken against the nurse as is stipulated in the legal and regulatory statement mentioned

The relationship between theoretical perspectives and early years curriculum models Essay Example for Free

The relationship between theoretical perspectives and early years curriculum models Essay Piaget believed that children are mini scientists and that they create their own understanding in response to their experiences. He also believed that children can self-motivate themselves without the need for rewards. Children are also able to adapt their knowledge to their experiences. Piaget believed that if a child has a comfortable and safe environment that it will allow a child to explore and interact more efficiently. Encouraging recreational sessions will allow a child to recreate real life circumstances. Piaget assessed and monitored children independently and specified that education and free play would educate independent learning rather than being fed knowledge. Piaget believed that a child learns in different stages; Sensorimotor – 0-2 a child understands the world through senses and actions Preoperational – 2-7 a child understands through language and mental images Concrete operational – 7-12 a child understands the world through logical thinking and categories Formal operational – 12 years + a child understands the world through hypothetical thinking and scientific reasoning Each stage is broken down further and being able to assess which stage a child is at enables the educator to provide the suitable resources required. Children learn from first hand experiences and educators are only required to offer suitable resources. Although Piaget assessed and monitored children independently this would have had no benefit on teamwork assessments with peers and group activities. Montessori’s theories Montessori theories have supported work in schools for over 100 years. It is a child focused approach of teaching and learning. It is built on specific observations on children between 0-19 years. Independence is a major factor in this theory and environments that are sensibly planned assures that a child will develop physically, psychologically and will advance in independent learning successfully. While being treated equally and justly individuals are taught on their own personal needs which promotes curiosity and passion. As all children are different, Montessori’s main aims for this theory are; †¢ Respect the individual – personal hand-on approach – unforced knowledge †¢ Absorbent mind – exploring freely – ensuring independent learning experiences †¢ Sensitive periods – identify certain growth stages allowing full potential to be met †¢ A prepared environment – readily obtainable resources for specific needs and interests †¢ Auto education – independent learners progress and learn life skills necessary for their future B.F. Skinners theoretical perspective on learning Skinner believed that all behaviour is learnt meaning it can be unlearnt. By replacing the negative behaviour with positive behaviour and response gives a base for learning. By emphasising and modelling good behaviour imitates what is expected. Skinner believed that behaviours happen in school when a child doesn’t understand. Teaching a child to listen teaches them to change their behaviour and reflect. Skinner alleged that children are capable of learning in 2 different ways; 1. Children learn to avoid the negative in the attempt to receive the positive Receiving a reward for positive things increases the likelihood of the child receiving positive reactions 2. Giving a punishment for a negative behaviour also gives a child reason to avoid negative and concentrate on positive Skinner believed that making education enjoyable would be effective in controlling behaviours. He did not believe in punishments but positive reinforcement to adapt and influence students. It is believed that if you want to apply Skinner’s theories into your school you must have; †¢ Positive incentives for behaviour †¢ Reward positive before reprimanding negative †¢ Ensure immediate reward to allow an association †¢ Provide on task feedback †¢ Adapt instructional material and approaches suitably †¢ Children must understand preconditioned skills before moving on †¢ Reinforce positive behaviours J.H Pestalozzi’s theory The Swiss education reformer, influenced by Rousseau, born in Zurich, is known as the most dedicated philosopher to fight for inclusion in schools and reforming the education system. A whole child approach to his methods, Pestalozzi believed that all children should learn through playing and exploring and should be able to peruse their own fun from what interests them personally. Understanding the needs of a child and knowing their background will enhance their performance. 3 main important aspects of Pestalozzi’s methods are; †¢ Head – intelligence and knowledge †¢ Heart – emotions and understanding †¢ Hands – strength and dexterity Pestalozzi’s methods still have huge influences on the modern education system. It is claimed that, in Pestalozzi’s methods, a child learns independently, what happens to special educational needs pupils? These pupils need structure and routine, so arguably his methods were not intended for SEN children and the growing population. 1 in 7 children are recognised as having special needs or a disability, meaning 13.6% would not be educated effectively. Considering most of the national curriculum was formed in 2014, it is questionable, is it up to date enough to meet the demands of the ever-growing change in society? Skinner is the only main figure in history to advise on a combination of social and political interpretations on behaviourism. He formed a theory of what a model society would be like designed around behaviourism. He’s a great promoter of free will and believes that our behaviour is modelled around our setting. Hans Khon believed that Skinners theory of rewards was not a motivation for behaviour but merely a preventive measure for the natural and deliberate behaviours. He also believes that Children should have morals and make their own conscious decisions. Skinner argues the fact that all language is purely learnt but, philosopher Chomsky disagrees and believes that language is inborn and is developed over time. Evidence has recognized that rewards in fact are a great triumph in education. Epraise.com have many success stories and have helped pupils achieve their milestones. It is thought that Skinners discoveries were unreliable as his experiments were performed on animals and not humans. Although this may be the case, engagement on learning is successful through incentives and rewards as this is evident in modern classrooms and has been used in many studies including ‘incredible years’, which is practiced and taught at the school I am currently working in. Rewards are a great incentive, but It is argued that motivation is not found in the absence of rewards. So, is the reward system just disguising natural undesired behaviours? It is argued that if this theory wasn’t working why is it still used today? Do children conform through forced motivation or are they naturally motivated? Skinners theory is actively used in many up-to-date schools around the world and is used successfully. At Heronsbridge school, many of Skinner’s methods are used daily. There is a weekly ‘special mention’ assembly for achievements, a weekly ‘pupil of the week’ award, assemblies play a PowerPoint of great accomplishments caught on camera for the whole school to see, but also instant rewards such as merits and free time are given out for instant recognition of their successes. ‘Incredible years’ is a method of positive reinforcement used at Heronsbridge, where negative behaviour is not acknowledged and rewards for positive behaviours are given as an incentive to encourage and inspire pupils as in Skinner’s philosophy. As this theory works well in Heronsbridge school, it may not work as well in other settings. As Heronsbridge is a SEN school, careful attention is given to the specific requirements to pupil’s individual needs. With regards to Jean Piaget’s theories and Montessori’s, Heronsbridge also pays close attention to the specific need of the child, being educational or medical, and encourages total independence on the pupils who are able. It is argued that, if a child is left to learn independently, then what would happen to children with special educational needs? Being able to plan what is taught will have a huge impact on SEN children. Surely the curriculum should ‘fit’ the child not the child ‘fit’ the curriculum? Heronsbridge implements the Jean Piaget theory of individual assessments. Pupils are frequently monitored and assessed individually through instep testing, LNF testing and annual reviews to ensure pupils are placed in the correct setting the following year, and then targets are set accordingly. No two children have the same targets and as the students are all at different levels of education, Montessori’s theory of mixed aged classes is reinforced throughout the leavers department.

Michael Jordan: King Of The Court :: essays research papers

Michael Jordan: King of the Court   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I began my report I didn’t know much about Michael Jordan, but I did know that he was “undoubtedly the greatest player in the history of the NBA'; (“Michael Air Jordan'; 1). It seemed like every time I heard the word basketball I also heard the name Michael Jordan. There’s just no avoiding him. If you are watching television you might see him playing basketball or golf. If you were reading a magazine there will probably be an advertisement with his picture. If you were walking down the street you might see a kid wearing Air Jordan shoes or a Bulls jersey with “JORDAN'; on the back of it. This man is probably as recognizable as the Pope. When we were asked to start thinking of our topics for our research papers Michael Jordan had just announced his retirement from basketball. There were all of these specials on the sports channels and the news so I had to find out what all the commotion was about. This is why I chose Michael Jordan to be the topic of my research paper. I hoped to find out how he became to be considered the greatest basketball player to ever play the game. I learned about a lot about Michael during the first week of my search since he was getting so much attention from the media at the time. When Michael Jordan was attending Laney High School in Wilmington, North Carolina nobody thought that he would ever turn out to be the player he is today let alone make it to the NBA. In fact, James Jordan, Michael’s father, actually thought that Michael’s best sport was baseball. His high school didn’t think he was so great at basketball either so they cut him from the varsity team when he was a sophomore. To Michael playing basketball in the NBA “seemed something of a distant dream'; (Halberstam 20), but even after he was cut from the varsity team Michael still practiced every day. Michael’s practice paid off in his junior and senior years when he was the best player on the varsity team. After high school Michael was off to the University of North Carolina where for three years he would have some amazing accomplishments in basketball. Perhaps Michael’s most memorable collegiate moment occurred while he was a freshman. On March 29, 1982 the University of North Carolina basketball team was facing off against the University of Georgetown in the national championship game. Michael Jordan: King Of The Court :: essays research papers Michael Jordan: King of the Court   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When I began my report I didn’t know much about Michael Jordan, but I did know that he was “undoubtedly the greatest player in the history of the NBA'; (“Michael Air Jordan'; 1). It seemed like every time I heard the word basketball I also heard the name Michael Jordan. There’s just no avoiding him. If you are watching television you might see him playing basketball or golf. If you were reading a magazine there will probably be an advertisement with his picture. If you were walking down the street you might see a kid wearing Air Jordan shoes or a Bulls jersey with “JORDAN'; on the back of it. This man is probably as recognizable as the Pope. When we were asked to start thinking of our topics for our research papers Michael Jordan had just announced his retirement from basketball. There were all of these specials on the sports channels and the news so I had to find out what all the commotion was about. This is why I chose Michael Jordan to be the topic of my research paper. I hoped to find out how he became to be considered the greatest basketball player to ever play the game. I learned about a lot about Michael during the first week of my search since he was getting so much attention from the media at the time. When Michael Jordan was attending Laney High School in Wilmington, North Carolina nobody thought that he would ever turn out to be the player he is today let alone make it to the NBA. In fact, James Jordan, Michael’s father, actually thought that Michael’s best sport was baseball. His high school didn’t think he was so great at basketball either so they cut him from the varsity team when he was a sophomore. To Michael playing basketball in the NBA “seemed something of a distant dream'; (Halberstam 20), but even after he was cut from the varsity team Michael still practiced every day. Michael’s practice paid off in his junior and senior years when he was the best player on the varsity team. After high school Michael was off to the University of North Carolina where for three years he would have some amazing accomplishments in basketball. Perhaps Michael’s most memorable collegiate moment occurred while he was a freshman. On March 29, 1982 the University of North Carolina basketball team was facing off against the University of Georgetown in the national championship game.

The Seagram Building Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Seagram Building is prime example of the international style of design in the 20th century. The building is a true landmark of the city having an open plaza at the base of the building with high ceilings, floor to ceiling tinted windows and bronze mullions. Its imperious design, set in a plaza with fountain, was imitated many times and became an icon of North American corporate design. Mies is known as the father of the steel and glass structure. Mies designed many buildings during his life however none of the would be as popular and famous as the Seagram Building. In real estate and architecture, some dreams need a lot of staying power to get realized. The Seagram Building is the realization, some three decades late, of Mies van der Rohe's dream of a glass-covered, high-rise office tower that would provide a stunning monument to the International Style's faith in simplicity and clarity. The Seagram building is the prime example of Mies' masterful use of steel. The bronze sheathed skyscraper soars thirty-eight stories high from its 90-foot deep pink granite plaza. Volume is everywhere apparent in this building, from the great columns that bring the structure to the ground to the welded bronze mullions holding the glass sheets in place. As enormous of a project this was, great attention was paid to purity and precision of design, following the fundamentals of the style. Details from doorknobs to stainless steel furniture throughout the building, spacious layout and functional use of all elements from interior office space to shower rooms, the Picasso backdrop signaling the entrance, the cantilevered portico entrance, and the luminous ceiling, make this one of the worlds most elegant skyscrapers. More importantly, pertaining to the International Style, Mies has expressed his elegant use of materials, and technological perfection throughout the building. Mies' well known theory of â€Å"less is more† is apparent by the spaciousness and functional quality of the Seagram building; everything serves a purpose, either for aesthetic appeal or functionality. â€Å"Less is more† is a concept used throughout the architectural world today. â€Å"Mies van der Rohe stands as a great moral force of the International Style. The essence of architecture, to Mies, lies in the expression of structure. And his precise, sophisticated, and consistent style of architecture sets an exam... ...ir-conditioning (HVAC) equipment. This is more a conservative than a cool corporate environment, energized by the warmth of its bronze color and the rhythmic repetitive pattern of its fenestration. â€Å"Like a well-bred lady who is confident enough not to wear the emperor's new clothes, the Seagram Building has a sophisticated arrogance that can wilt trendy fashions with the authority of its posture and demeanor.† I had a chance to visit this building and as I stood under the edge of the building looking upward I was amazed by the beauty and precision, and stunned by the size and splendor. Inside I could not get past the entrance and a guard told me I wasn’t allowed to take pictures. The interior with its light colored marble walls and double height ceiling is breathtaking, I stood there and I felt a tremble run through my body. I can honestly say this is one of my favorite buildings in New York. Bibliography Glancey, Jonathan. Twentieth Century Architecture. London: Carlton Books Limited,1998. Schulze, Fraz. The Seagram Building. NJ: Princeton Architectural Press. 1999. http://www.comkey.net/daniel/seagram.htm http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Seagram_Building.html

Listo Systems: Cami Machado, Trainer

Listo Systems: Cami Machado, Trainer Context: Listo Systems is a graphic service agency and is one of the leading companies within the sector. They recently implemented a new black box technology which resulted in a demand for trainings for the employees as well as â€Å"train-the trainer† sessions. Cami Machado is responsible for conducting these sessions and she feels well prepared. She is also the one who represents the company at an annual Computer Graphic Service Trade Show. Key Issues and Problems: Cami Machado has previous experiences and therefore feels confident and eager for the first session of the trainings.However, the general evaluations of the course were poor and most of the trainers had no clue of what was expected from them. Although Cami is not worried, her manager realizes that something needs to be done. The second issue is related to the Graphic Service Trade Show where Cami routinely represents Listo Systems. This year because of the occurring changes, L isto has scheduled a private presentation for key contacts. Cami is assigned to give a flashy, multimedia overview of the clients benefits of the new â€Å"black box system†.However, she is procrastinating and thinks that from sales or marketing would be better suited for this task. Applying concepts: Cami knows that she could do a good job making the â€Å"glamour show†, however she wants to have the presentation reassigned. In this case Cami is able but unwilling and therefore her performance readiness is R3 (at level 3). She prefers to talk to the â€Å"real† people with â€Å"real† questions. As for the trainings that she has been assigned to organize, Cami feels herself able, confident and willing (R4). In the past she has taughtInformation Technology courses at a local university and for that reason she feels well prepared. She has spent two weeks preparing detailed manuals however the professional trainers do not share her enthusiasm and confidence . From their perspective, Cami is an R2, because even though she is very motivated and willing to accomplish this task, the other trainers are not satisfied with her work. She is not very effective in giving precise directions of what should be done and what is expected, and the majority of the trainers are lost and confused.It is important to notice that the concepts of ability and willingness are an â€Å"interacting influence system†. In other words, that they are interconnected and a significant change in one will affect the whole. This is why the amount of knowledge, experience and skills often affect confidence and motivation. Cami feels that she knows what is required for the trainings to be successful because she has had experience at the University. However, it is hard to say whether she has all the skills that are necessary to train-the-trainers.Comments from the trainers also included â€Å"lots of smoke but no fire† and â€Å"talks down to us†. We ca n therefore conclude that the reason why the trainers where not satisfied was not necessarily because of Cami’s technical skills, but maybe her relationship with the employees. Her directive behavior is very high but her relationship and supportive behavior not as much. Looking at the Situational Leadership model, Cam is using S4 leadership style, which includes low relationship and mostly delegating. Alternative Courses of Action:In order to be more successful in leading the others, Cami should use the S2 leadership style, which includes selling and most importantly explaining what she expects from the trainers. Cami considers herself well prepared and experienced however the evaluation of the course was poor because of lack of explanations. Another reason why the employees were not satisfied was because Cami was â€Å"talking down to them†. To avoid this, Cami should be more supportive and use participative leadership style that will allow her to interact with the ot her trainer and to improve her relationship with them.To make everything more certain, Cami should clarify the path by explaining the follower’s – in this case trainers’ work role. Only then she should display her motivations and effort to accomplish the work outcomes. The Chosen course of Action: The combination of all the above-mentioned solutions would work best for Cami’s situation. However, I believe that the biggest issue in this cause was that the trainers where unaware of what was expected from them. And therefore the best solution would be that Cami clarifies the goals of the trainings and only then tries to motivate and encourage the trainers.Action Plan: Although Cami is a very valuable employee, I believe that her manager should be more directive towards her. For example, he shouldn’t let her procrastinate and reassign her tasks. It is obvious that Cami loves her job and making her tasks more certain and a bit stricter would make a posi tive change for everyone. The trainers and employees of the organization are already dedicated and hard-working, therefore no big changes are necessary. However, slight alterations could be beneficial as discussed above. Listo Systems: The New Security System – Buying In Context:Listo Systems is a graphic service agency and is one of the leading companies within the sector. They recently implemented a new black box technology that caused different reactions from the employees. Key Issues and Problems: One of Cami’s team members, Steve, was unsatisfied because he just got used to the â€Å"old† system and doesn’t want to start all over again. He is thinking about transferring to another department within the company that doesn’t involve the use of the black box. The main issue in this case is that the implementation of the new security system can be a potential risk for losing the employees.There might be other employees like Steve, who are not will ing to adapt and who might take to decision to leave. In the long run this could negatively affect the company because the turnover ratio would increase. Applying concepts: Even though Steve was having difficulty adapting to the new system, there are other employees who are willing to do â€Å"whatever is necessary to keep the customers happy and them employed†. The majority of the employees want to keep their current jobs and this is what motivates them to learn and to adjust to the new security system.The company is doing everything that is necessary in order to train the employees, so the main factor that is required for an overall success is the motivation of the employees. It is clear that Steve’s performance readiness was at the very bottom (R1) because he was unable, insecure and unwilling to learn how to work with the black box. He is displaying frustration and has a complaining behavior, which is typical to the level 1 employees. Angie, the second team member, is an R2, because even though the new black box is foreign to her, she is willing and is motivated to learn.The third member, Dorothy, has an extensive experience with the black box, and therefore she is at the highest performance readiness level (R4). She has the right skills and at the same time we can see that she is willing to work with the new system, because she’s encouraging all the other members to support it as well. According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, employee’s motivation and performance depend on various factors that need be satisfied at the first place. In this case, we can assume that the physiological, social and safety needs are satisfied. However, as some of the employees don’t feel confident, their esteem nd self-actualization factors are not fully satisfied. This demotivates the members of the company and negatively affects the productivity level. Alternative Courses of Action: As stated in the case, in order to diagnose the perf ormance readiness level, the indicators of ability and willingness should be combined. You have to assess whether the individual is able (presently performing) and whether he is willing or unwilling to perform a certain task. A good way to do that would be by running an emergency survey, right after the implementation of the black box.This would help to find out in which areas the employees need help and guidance, as well to assess the overall satisfaction level. In order to avoid losing more employees, the management should have more individual approach towards its employees. Some people are quick-learner while the other dislike major changes. The results of the survey would show who needs additional help, and the trainers could focus more on this specific group of employees. There is not an appropriate leadership style for this case, because every member needs to be approached in a different way.The S3 level would be the most appropriate because the manager would be able to encour age and help its employees by participating more. The Chosen course of Action: The best solution would first of all be to run a quick survey within the department. After determining the indicators of ability and willingness, it will be much easier to find out the employees’ performance readiness and to decide which leadership style is the most appropriate. Action Plan: Different employees have different opinions and it is hard to keep every single member satisfied.The survey would allow to asses the common weaknesses within the group and to fill the gap by organizing trainings. Listo Systems: Cami Machado – System Conversation Context: Listo Systems is a graphic service agency and is one of the leading companies within the sector. They recently implemented a new black box. Cami, the responsible for the system has taken the black box through all the recommended steps tests and it performed perfectly. The system has also been tested by a former CIA computer specialist an d its was declared to be flawless. Nevertheless, Cami insisted to keep the old system â€Å"just in case†.Key Issues and Problems: Even though everything turned out to work perfectly, Cami confessed that she has never been so nervous in her life. She had asked to keep the old system as well, however she was still very anxious and was sleeping only a few hours at night. Applying concepts: Cami’s performance level in this situation is R3, because even though she was able to make the switch, she was still not confident and very hesitant. However, she had asked to keep the parallel system, so in case if something went wrong, there was an alternative solution. There was no reason for Cami to feel nervous, even if the black box failed.The leadership style that Cami’s manager should use is S3. He should support her in risk-taking and compliment the work. Alternative Courses of Action: The manager should not disempower Cami, because she has done a hard work and deserves appreciation. He should be very supportive and help her to deal with her nervousness. As mentioned above, this would be a S3 leadership style, which would result in building confidence, actively listening and encouraging. The employees should try to adapt to the new system, instead of leaving the department and creating more issues to deal with.They should also be supportive towards Cami, and appreciate her effort. The Chosen course of Action: Cami’s manager should take more participation in the implementation of the black box. He should leave everything on Cami’s shoulders, even though she’s the one responsible for the project. A supportive leadership style would be very effective in this situation and would help Cami to work more productively with less stress and anxiety. Action Plan: With the help of her manager and her employees, Cami should be able to overcome the difficult period at her workplace and gain more confidence in the work that she is doing.The management should help her to increase her performance readiness level to R4, by showing more support and encouragement. Listo Systems: Randy Mack, Trainer, Listo Systems Context: Randy Mack is an experienced trainer for Listo Systems and has worked with the company for a number of years. His evaluations have always been first rate and he has been able to develop a rapport with the people whom he trains. Key Issues and Problems: Recently, Randy is not happy with his job and had received below-par evaluations for the first time. His main concern is the lack of career advancement at Listo Systems.Some of his training have ended in confrontations with the trainees. Applying concepts: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explains clearly why Randy is dissatisfied with his job. Even though he has performed perfectly for so many years, the lack of self-actualization and career advancement demotivates him. With all the new changes occurring with Listo Systems, the management is possibly more focused on profit and the technology rather then promoting its employees. This lack of attention has resulted in demotivation because Randy feels that his work isn’t much appreciated anymore.His performance readiness is at R3, considering that he knows his job very well and his has been number one for a long time. However the lack of career advancement made him unwilling and decreased his productivity. Alternative Courses of Action: The management should use S3 leadership style, in order to improve Randy’s performance readiness level. Considering that he is a valuable employee, it would be a big loss for the company of Randy left. In order to avoid that, the management should try to show more encouragement and offer possible ways of growth within the company.For example, another solution would be motivating him with financial bonuses. The Chosen course of Action: It’s Randy’s experience that makes him a valuable employee, and he cannot be easily replaced . For that reason the managers should compromise by either promoting Randy or suggesting other potentials ways of career advancement. Action Plan: The managers should make a quick decision before it gets any worse. They have to motivate Randy to stay by offering bonuses and showing that they appreciate his work.

How much for life essays

How much for life essays The article on How much for a Life looks at the ethical view of an individual life in an economic way. To say that every person on this planet is worth the same amount, give or take a few million, is putting all individuals on an equal plain. One would argue that a professional doctor, who is in the business of saving peoples lives, is much more important the individual who is unemployed and only watches television all day. Another would argue that someone like Mother Theresa is far more important and valuable than The President of the United States. When you look at these two arguments, who you view to be more important and valuable depends upon what end of the scale you are living. If I were another unemployed person who stays home and watches television all day, I would argue that I am worth just as much as any doctor in the country. I take this view because I come from the same environment stated in the argument above. In the second argument, if I were not a religious man, I would probably think that the president of the United States if far more important and valuable than Mother Theresa. What I am trying to say is that you cannot possibly put a value on any one persons life. We all come from different parts of the world and are raised in different types of environments. To say that the value of an individual life increases with the contributions that person makes to the world is not even a fair statement. The person who is unemployed and only watches television all day might have five or more children that needs their attention. The person also may be staying home due to the ever increasing cost of childcare and it does not make sense for them to work. The professional doctor may be a single person with no responsibilities other than his or her work. Does this ...

Kellys cognitive theory

Kellys cognitive theory Human personality has been a complex issue for long and has inspired theorists to create ideas to enhance the understanding of the subject. The theorists have made several attempts to understand and explain how the personalities are developed, their variations, how they affect human interactions with the world and their relationships with different psychologically-related disorders.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kelly’s cognitive theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More George Kelly is one of the proponents of the cognitive theory which is the focus of this study. The center of Kelly’s cognitive theory is the manner in which individuals think because their thoughts affect their feelings and actions.The thoughts and feelings of individuals determine their personalities. Kelly identifies the major role in which the human cognition element plays in determining personality. This aspect forms the foundation of the terminology of personal constructs which refers to the different ways in which individuals collect information and with the support of their understanding, use it to predict events (Kelly, 2006). The individual interacts with the world based on the outcome of his prediction and this interaction becomes his personality. Kelly’s incisive evaluation on individuality is informed by the need to equate individuals to scientists. He postulates that the objectives of scientists can be linked to those of other beings. He suggests that in the same way that scientists build hypotheses and conduct experiments to establish their validity, people also develop theories based on their personal constructs and consequently employ various theories to predict events. However, the constructs may at times be influenced by the individuals’ past experiences that may not be relevant to their present societal circumstances hence rendering the constructs invalid. The distorted constructs cannot be used to predict events because they cannot hold new data entry due to their unchangeable nature. Given that constructs are limited in nature and cannot therefore be employed in all situations, individuals may at times be required to revise their constructs to accommodate data that is created by new experiences. The choice that an individual makes in order to change his construct is what Kelly calls â€Å"constructive alternativism†. The premise of his theory is based on the fact that â€Å"a person’s processes are psychologically determined by the ways in which he anticipates events† (Van der Kolk, Fisler, 2005). This proposition is known as the fundamental postulate, meaning that individuals’ actions determine their worldly expectations especially those which are founded on past experiences.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A child wh o has previously experienced abuse from his parent can neither expect nor become appreciative of affection from another guardian. Kelly also categorizes 11 corollaries under the postulate to expound the process of information interpretation which include expectation, experience and action. The construction corollary The individuals’ construction of anticipation is founded on their interpretation of replication meaning that their expectations are based on past happenings. The experience corollary Here, the construction system of an individual differs with his understanding of replication meaning that when events are not as anticipated, their constructs are altered or reconstructed. The dichotomy corollary The constructs are stored experiences which the individuals use to perceive the world and â€Å"guide† their actions. These constructs are usually unique to every individual hence the term, â€Å"personal constructs†. The organization corollary An interrelation exists between the constructs in regard to associational networks and chains of command in that the associations may be strong or weak. The range corollary The effectiveness of constructs is limited to several situations meaning that certain constructs can be extensive, whereas others can be narrow. The modulation corollary The range of certain constructs can be adjusted so as to hold new information but others cannot, meaning that certain ranges can be expanded and others cannot. The expansion of the range is known as dilation and the narrowing of the range is called constriction.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Kelly’s cognitive theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The choice corollary The individual has the choice of acquiring new experiences in order to broaden his constructs or reject them and keep them as â€Å"safe† but minimized constructs. The individuality corollary Due to the fact that in dividuals’ experiences vary, their constructs also tend to be different. The commonality corollary Even though individuals are different, to some extent certain of their experiences are alike leading to similar constructs. This fact is necessitated by the concept that shows that their perception of the world may be similar. The fragmentation corollary The variation in situations and positions in which an individual can be destined to be in can bring out divergence in the constructs. The sociality corollary This cognitive scope determines how an individual interacts with another depending on their comprehension of their constructs. Kelly’s theory suggests that individuals do not need motivation since they are not inactive nor are they recipients. This fact is enhanced by the idea that individuals may be living and hence destined to move. The only time individuals stop moving is when they die (Target Fonagy, 2001). Construction transitions Kelly’s constructs of t ransition refer to emotions and occur when an individual alters his construction systems after an experience which can in turn create anxiety, hostility and in certain cases, guilt. However, the construction systems also offer opportunities for reconstruction. When individuals find themselves in circumstances that their constructs have not earlier foreseen or encountered, they experience anxiety because they realize that their constructs are ineffective. Guilt manifests itself when one does not keep to the constructs that he identifies with. In the event that one’s constructs are not in line with the world, one can attempt to modulate the reality to fit into one’s constructs.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This aspect is known as aggression which can turn into hostility when the individual is persistent in trying to change reality so that it can conform to their constructs instead of their altering the constructs. An individual is said to have a psychological disorder when he refuses to reconstruct. Subsequently, he may not able to anticipate and accommodate new information. Kelly’s theory has had massive influence on later psychology and movement as it has been applied in disorders like schizophrenia, depression and addiction. The Kellian therapy functions by making individuals to either â€Å"relax† their constructs. The constructs are tested to determine their functionality and are used to verify their applicability and movement. The mentioned steps can be accomplished by employing â€Å"role-play†. The psychotherapy is based on reconstruction, which is founded on encouraging the individuals to change their constructs. This aspect is what is referred to as move ment. Kelly states that a theory has to be useful to be declared valid. The fact that his theory has been applicable in psychotherapy and psychology worldwide leads one to determine that his theory is indeed valid. Kelly’s theory is supported by several peer reviewed articles. One of the articles is titled, Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect written by Troy Higgins. It states that the vulnerabilities of emotions are interrelated with different inconsistencies involving â€Å"self-state† representations. It suggests that these inconsistencies are symbolic of the various harmful psychological circumstances related to various anxieties. The variations connecting the real self-concept and the model self-concept indicate that positive results may be inexistent. These inconsistencies and negative results can be related to emotions like hostility, threats and anxiety. The peer reviewed article thus supports Kelly’s constructs of transition. In another article titled, Personal construct psychology and the cognitive revolution, the writers Brien Graines and Mildred Shaw relate learning and motivation to the psychology of personal constructs. They state that the process of learning conforms to the postulate formulated by Kelly in the sense that an individual needs to alter his constructs to accommodate new information. In regard to motivation, Kelly includes this aspect within the choice corollary whereby the individual can choose to acquire new information in order to expand his construct (Schultz Schultz, 2009). The article by Dr. Christopher L. Heffra titled, Personality perspective on the other hand also validates Kelly’s theory by highlighting its usefulness. It does this by stating the relevance of the cognitive theory in treating psychological disorders like depression and other disorders associated with anxiety. The two â€Å"cognitivists† who stand out most in the theories’ application include Aaron Be ck and Albert Ellis. Their application is successful because they concur that by changing the way in which one thinks; actions and feelings can also be changed since the latter aspects are determined by thoughts or constructs and as a result, various negative personality features can be eliminated. The application of the theory in treatment can be evidenced by Becks evaluation systems; Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventory (BDI and BAI) and Ellis’ ABC technique. Heffra cites the important role that studies have played in bringing out the importance of employing cognitive treatment over medication in dealing with depression as its effects last longer. Although the theory received a great deal of support through the insights into individuals’ thought processes and perceptions as provided by studies, it did record some faults. Critics term the theory as â€Å"weak† because of the theoretical nature of constructs and the lack of consensus in the way the theory is de scribed or applied. References Kelly, G. A. (2006). A Brief Introduction to Personal Construct Theory. In: Perspectives in Personal Construct Theory. Ed. Bannister. London, UK: Academic Press. Schultz, D.P., Schultz, S.E. (2009). Theories of personality, 9th ed. Belmont, USA: Wadsworth Publishers. Target, M., Fonagy, S. P. (2001). Playing with reality: The development of psychic reality from a theoretical perspective. International Journal of Psycho-Analysis, 77(3), 459–479. Van der Kolk, B. A., Fisler, R. (2005). Dissociation and the fragmentary nature of traumatic memories: Overview and explanatory study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 8(1), 505–525.

5 Things I Learned About Writing from Grammarly

5 Things I Learned About Writing from Grammarly 5 Things I Learned About Creative Writing from Using Grammarly Martin Cavannagh is a writer and member of the Reedsy team. When he's not writing blog posts about publishing, he can be found scrawling short stories and writing screenplays in his free time.Spelling and grammar checkers have come a long way since the early days of Microsoft Word. Back then, we would learn to hate the green squiggly line that appeared under sentences - along with cryptic suggestions for improving your document - to the point where we’d turn off the grammar check to preserve our sanity.One of the most prominent online writing services emerging in recent years is Grammarly. It’s an app that integrates into your browser, allowing it to scrutinize the spelling and grammar in your tweets, Facebook updates, and emails. You can tweak the software to what you’re writing, tailoring it for US or UK English, for example. It will also vary its suggestions depending on whether you’re writing a blog, an essay, or a medical journal.Full disclosure: Re edy has recently become an affiliate of Grammarly - however, that has given us a chance to test drive it for the past month. In fact, this post is currently being checked using their service. And while I doubt automated grammar checkers can replace the job of a proofreader anytime soon - it has had the unexpected benefit of allowing me to examine my writing tics and improve my natural writing style.So, based on my everyday use of the app, this is what I’ve learned in the past month:1. Don’t rely on passive voiceThat's one of the most common ‘complaints‘ I get from Grammarly. And while it isn’t necessary to eradicate all instances of passive voice, it can often improve your writing. One of the most useful things I find with using Grammarly is its constant reminder to get to the point and not get bogged down by wordiness.Long sentences are not necessarily a bad thing, and sometimes entirely required. But as the Grammarly app points out, â€Å"the average number of words per sentence should range somewhere from eight (very easy) to twenty (somewhat difficult) words per sentence. Sentences longer than thirty words are often very difficult to follow.†So unless you’re the ghost of David Foster Wallace, you may wish to break long sentences into a series of shorter ones. Also, by varying their lengths, you can create a much more satisfying reading experience. We’ve heard it said that you should ‘write music’ - meaning that the rhythms and changing pace should be as important as what the words mean.It’s worth noting that Grammarly is incredibly helpful for writing emails and letters. I would go so far as to say it can even aid y ou in polishing a draft of the book you’re writing. I would not, however, recommend using it to write your first draft. Editing-as-you-go can often hamper your productivity and break up the flow of ideas, which is crucial when you’re in the process of â€Å"creating.†And while writing software has become incredibly sophisticated - it has yet to reach the point of being able to replace a professional proofreader. And until we get to that point, it’s always worth considering getting a qualified pair of eyes to look through your manuscript before publication.Do you use a program to help you sharpen your prose? If so, we’d love to find out about it and hear about your experience. Share your thoughts, comments, and questions in the box below.

Teaching English to Young Learners Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5500 words

Teaching English to Young Learners - Essay Example Therefore, the main attention of the paper is focused on a combination of playful methods, involvement of music and games in the process of language acquiring. Part I Literature Review Before starting up a discussion about how to teach English as a second language to young learners, it is relevant to observe classic theoretical works in this field. Teaching English to young learners as a second language is considered in the works of classical theoretic writers, such as Stern and Weinrib (1977), Dunn (1983, 1985), Halliwell (1993) and Drucker (2003). Their theories were based with regard to the evolution of children at pre-school age, correlation between their physical and intellectual abilities etc. Moreover, children’s abilities to narrate and cognize were also taken into account. With respect to children’s abilities, different activities, games etc were chosen by theoreticians as the basis for development of the most appropriate learning program for young learners. Th e most common practice for teachers is the usage of a form of a game during the lesson. This approach is relevant to children who are already able to solve brain teasers or riddles. In this case an indirect learning occurs. A child does not have to learn some new words or sentences; he is just trying to solve a riddle or a puzzle (Arnold, 1999). Therefore, a role of indirect learning is as well important as a role of direct learning, because â€Å"whether one is used more than the other depends on a combination of intellectual development, temper and circumstances. Direct and conscious learning seems to encourage an elaborated accuracy of the language, while acquisition stimulates a spontaneous and more fluent use† (Arnold, 1999). The ideal variant of English language learning is when both accuracy and fluency is reached. Unfortunately, child’s abilities to lean grammar consciously are underdeveloped. From the one perspective, children have in-born skills to acquire la nguage. Thus, this fact should be properly used by a teacher in order to develop a relevant methodology enabling children to use their language knowledge not only during the lessons, but also outside the class. Consequently, game is a perfect opportunity and the right way to a proper learning. In accordance with Halliwell (1993): â€Å"games should not be disregarded as a waste of time. They also shouldn’t be considered as something that can be introduced as a time filler at the end of class or as a prize for doing  «real » work; they are real work. Games make up a central part of the process of language acquisition, which is wonderful because children have such a strong sense of fun and games† (Halliwell 1993, p. 6). Consequently, we can surely conclude that during games children reveal their creative potential, stimulate their imagination and fantasy. For example, the main role imagination plays in the L2 class. Moreover, Halliwell (1993) underlines that fantasy involvement benefits to real usage of language. In a playful manner children can make an attempt to describe to each other a certain monster and they will try to use different words to reflect their fantasy verbally. In the contemporary studies on English teaching to young learners there are three main types of contents: these are conceptual, attitudinal, and procedural (Lessow-Hurley, 2003). In the

Social Media Marketing Plan Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Media Marketing Plan - Term Paper Example The organization can achieve the goals by monitoring the stakeholders’ reactions towards the organization’s activities using their views on the social media. Other organization’s goals encompass validation of new products and services using the social media as a research base and generation of registrations to the organization’s events through the media. Given the organization’s marketing strategies, the activities that make sense include increasing awareness of the strengths of the company’s products and providing accurate information about the business. Other activities entail reacting to the consumers’ messages and questions within the shortest period. Additionally, an important activity entails aligning the media activities with the organization’s goals. This is achievable through the effective online status management. Social Media Status The company has successfully engaged in several social activities. Some of the activit ies entail responding to the customers’ questions and selling some products through the social media. These activities have been successful because customers’ views illustrate their level of satisfaction with responses. Additionally, the company has managed to sell several products online. Moreover, the company has been successful in attracting large numbers of clients. However, it has not been successful in increasing their engagement. The organization used some metrics to measure the success of the social media. The social media successes need to be identified by clear measurable goals. The organization has measured its goal of reaching many clients by using the total reach. By using this, the organization acknowledged the value added to the social space. The total reach was large. This implies that the organization was able to attract many clients. Additionally, the organization measured its success through the social customer relationship management (CRM) tool. Thi s, too, was helpful in showing the number of people using the organization’s social page and the level of engagement on the page. This measurement is vital in determining whether the organization’s value is increasing through its social strategy. The social CRM tool used is the Sprout Social, which combined the organization’s activities into a single activity. This enabled the organization to know if its strategy is moving towards the expected direction. Through this metric, the organization’s goal was partly achieved because it had managed to attract a large community. However, it had partly failed because the level of engagement was very low. Furthermore, the organization used the Conversation Share to determine the position of the organization in the social media as far as competition is concerned. This is done through measuring the amount of conversation about organization’s products in comparison with the number of conversations about the riva ls’ products. This metric showed that the organization was successful in acquiring a large market share, although not like some of its competitors. Consequently, the organization needs to upgrade its systems in order to reach very high levels of conversation share like its competitors (Lauby 1). Social Activities The first step of the social medi

Global Marketing Strategy and Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Global Marketing Strategy and Practice - Essay Example It was founded in the year 1981 in the city of New York (Buffalo Wild Wings, Inc, n. d). Within 2009, the restaurant spread across 652 locations. The organization recently changed the headquarter form Cincinnati to Minneapolis (Buffalo Wild Wings, n. d). The most famous products of the organization are Buffalo wings and various sauces. The organization is popular all over the world as BW3 (Company history, n. d). Over the years, the organization have increased the variety of products with the introduction of more than dozen unique dipping sauces which are served with the special Buffalo style chicken wings. Besides specializing on the Buffalo wings, the restaurant chains have included various appetizers, burgers salads, desserts and refreshment in their menu (menus, n. d). More than 250 units of the restaurant are directly under the operation of the organization and the rest are operated by the franchisees (Franchise info, n. d). Reason for the primary choice of the markets of India , Japan and China could be attributed to the fact that the markets are hugely diversified and the preference of the customers for the fast foods in this part of the world are always at an increasing rate. Another factor which has guided behind the selection of the organization is the fact that the economies in the market of three countries are much more stable among the Asian countries and the organization is expected to deliver its best in the region. Process for the selection of the chosen market: The process of screening of the international market is undertaken by the analysis of the internal and external environment of the potential markets and finally coming to a conclusion regarding the choice of the country. Below is the diagrammatic representation of the screening process Internal environment Size of the market Amount of resource Degree of knowledge External environment Competitive environment Structure of industry Consideration of social, cultural and economic factors. Ana lysis of the market in China for international expansion Market Size: China is the most populous country in the world with a present population of nearly 1.341 billion. The vast population of china attracts business from all industries to invest in Chinese market. Market growth: The substantial growth in the market makes China as the second largest economy of the world after United States (CSR report for congress, 2007). Risk of investment: Initial research regarding the economic conditions interprets the market in china is stable and is capable of facing economic downturns. So any change in the global market scenario will not cause any huge loss for the marketers in China. Internal factors: In China the overall condition of the fast food industry is also very stable and the market keeps going in a rapid rate. China also the presence of various multinational fast food organizations and their figures reflect the fact that adoption to correct business strategies can yield favorable re sults for them (Fast food battle heats up in China, n. d). Market in Japan: Market size: The fast food market in Japan has been one of the most competitive markets in Japan’

What kind of society should the United States strive to become Essay

What kind of society should the United States strive to become - Essay Example Though it presents us with a unique opportunity, it has the potential to work against us if we fail to create a social attitude to accept these differences. There is a fine line we must walk to maintain our cultural differences without labeling a group as being different. Being set too far apart from the larger society runs the risk of many minorities becoming increasingly separated by prejudice and discrimination. The challenge is to incorporate and preserve multi-value systems without the attitude that can develop in a dominant-minority relationship. The multicultural approach views our value system as a diverse set of qualities that defines what it means to be an American. The term mulit-cultural implies that the definition is broad and sweeping, encompassing numerous attitudes and beliefs. The older national approach assumed there were a set of traditional American values at the core of our society. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive. Minority groups adopt the prevailing core values of the society in an effort to become more American. Immigrants may develop values based on our constitution or Ten Commandments without rejecting their own unique perspective and cultural heritage. What is ethnocentrism Can you identify your own ethnocentric feelings Please provide a specific example. Ethnocentrism is the belief that our own values and standards are the true and correct ones and cultural differences are viewed as unusual or inappropriate. Ethnocentrism deems our own judgments and values as morally superior than others, which we view as primitive or barbaric. It is a trait that gives us the sense that 'I am right, they are wrong'. When I see an ethnic grocery store or market in a major American city, I am instantly repelled by the bizarre types of foods and what I perceive as unhealthy conditions. I may not even know what the foods are, but my knowledge that they are different is enough for me to develop the perception that they are inferior to my familiar cheeseburger and french fries. My ethnocentrism is making the judgment without regard to well-reasoned thought. Week 2 Define pluralism and explain the ways in which it differs from assimilation. Why has interest in pluralism increased How have contemporary theorists added to the concept of pluralism Pluralism is the process of maintaining distinct social groups that hold and preserve unique cultural differences and values. Assimilation is the process of becoming a member of another group through social contact. It assumes that when groups interact they will adopt mutual values and goals. Over time, the two groups will merge into one without noticeable differences. Pluralism recognizes that values and ethnic traditions are preserved within a group because they offer value to its members in the way of self-image and group power. Interest in pluralism has increased because real assimilation does not seem to be a practical reality. Ethnic identification has become more pronounced as America becomes more diverse and groups cling to and celebrate their ethnic traditions. It is becoming more accepted that the assimilation predicted by Park and others will not come to pass in the foreseeable

Why We Cant Wait Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Why We Cant Wait - Essay Example People of color especially African Americans were seen as people who belonged to the lower or second class in society. As a result, African Americans were not allowed to access certain areas, and were not admitted to same schools as whites. It is clear that Martin Luther stated that African Americans could no longer wait for the followings things; ii. Lack of trust in government and politicians especially after the perceived failures of President Kennedy in that during his reign, Kennedy failed to establish a stance housing desegregation policy and did not address the issue of African American voting rights in states such as Virginia and Texas. It is vivid from the article that the media in American helped to propagate racial sentiments against black people. For instance, the media propagated racial segregation in their articles where they referred to black people as darkies, coons, and niggers. Their messages in the articles spread anti-black information and stereotypes. In schools, white children saw black children as inferior and worthless. All social institutions such as schools and churches reinforced oppression of the people of color particularly African Americans (Luther 56). Many things happening in the American society prompted Luther to write the book. For instance, King argues that the white race mistreated black people. He documents the following practices and norms to depict how pervasive and inclusive racial segregation was entrenched in society. Violence was used to place African Americans at the bottom of the racial hierarchy. For instance, the Jim Crow used war on drug to discriminate black people whereby, police applied excess force to arrest black men on conception that they were drug dealers. This reveals how the criminal justice system in America was racist in trying to connect the dots between earlier forms of social and current system of mass incarceration (Luther 61). There was rebirth of the

What kind of society should the United States strive to become Essay

What kind of society should the United States strive to become - Essay Example Though it presents us with a unique opportunity, it has the potential to work against us if we fail to create a social attitude to accept these differences. There is a fine line we must walk to maintain our cultural differences without labeling a group as being different. Being set too far apart from the larger society runs the risk of many minorities becoming increasingly separated by prejudice and discrimination. The challenge is to incorporate and preserve multi-value systems without the attitude that can develop in a dominant-minority relationship. The multicultural approach views our value system as a diverse set of qualities that defines what it means to be an American. The term mulit-cultural implies that the definition is broad and sweeping, encompassing numerous attitudes and beliefs. The older national approach assumed there were a set of traditional American values at the core of our society. The two approaches are not mutually exclusive. Minority groups adopt the prevailing core values of the society in an effort to become more American. Immigrants may develop values based on our constitution or Ten Commandments without rejecting their own unique perspective and cultural heritage. What is ethnocentrism Can you identify your own ethnocentric feelings Please provide a specific example. Ethnocentrism is the belief that our own values and standards are the true and correct ones and cultural differences are viewed as unusual or inappropriate. Ethnocentrism deems our own judgments and values as morally superior than others, which we view as primitive or barbaric. It is a trait that gives us the sense that 'I am right, they are wrong'. When I see an ethnic grocery store or market in a major American city, I am instantly repelled by the bizarre types of foods and what I perceive as unhealthy conditions. I may not even know what the foods are, but my knowledge that they are different is enough for me to develop the perception that they are inferior to my familiar cheeseburger and french fries. My ethnocentrism is making the judgment without regard to well-reasoned thought. Week 2 Define pluralism and explain the ways in which it differs from assimilation. Why has interest in pluralism increased How have contemporary theorists added to the concept of pluralism Pluralism is the process of maintaining distinct social groups that hold and preserve unique cultural differences and values. Assimilation is the process of becoming a member of another group through social contact. It assumes that when groups interact they will adopt mutual values and goals. Over time, the two groups will merge into one without noticeable differences. Pluralism recognizes that values and ethnic traditions are preserved within a group because they offer value to its members in the way of self-image and group power. Interest in pluralism has increased because real assimilation does not seem to be a practical reality. Ethnic identification has become more pronounced as America becomes more diverse and groups cling to and celebrate their ethnic traditions. It is becoming more accepted that the assimilation predicted by Park and others will not come to pass in the foreseeable

Short report about living wall Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Short report about living wall - Essay Example Aside from the well-known Canadian Universities such as Waterloo and Queens, there are other Canadian installations of living walls. There are also a plethora of cost and environmental benefits to Nova Insurance, as well as physical and mental health benefits to its employees and clients. Loose walls are not recommended for Nova Insurance, as the plants are grown in the same manner as most house plants. They are in a pot of soil, which requires periodic replenishment and creates an untidy look that is also difficult to maintain in a public setting. Mat systems are created of a cork fibre or felt matting. This method will only support mature plant growth up to five years before reparation is required. This system requires constant irrigation as it is unable to hold water like loose media. This will create an additional cost requirement, as a hydroponics system is required. Structural systems are akin to a block type of system, which can be created in a plethora of sizes, thicknesses and shapes. This is the most recommended media, as they do not require renovation for up to 15 years. This type of system is most readily adaptable to architectural requirements of Nova Insurance, as well as most easily maintained and replaced as necessary. This system offers the highest longevity and performance among the three media. Overall, the structural media is often the most expensive to install initially, however, its maintenance cost is the lowest; longevity is the highest and the most vigorous in growth to achieve second floor expansion. Among varying universities across Canada, there are several other installations of living walls. One such installation is located in Richmond, BC at Vancouver International Airport. This living wall is both interior and exterior. This living wall was designed not only to be aesthetically pleasing, but also to assist the environment through

From Production Line to Segmentation of Production Essay Example for Free

From Production Line to Segmentation of Production Essay 1. Introduction Competition has changed: Technical Innovations, globalisation of markets, cultural shifts within societies and new and efficient competitors put strain on the organisation of production within a firm. Many markets display a state of saturation that leads to a change in growth: Not quantitative growth is what firms are aiming at, but qualitative growth (Wildemann 1998:1). The improvement of the production is one way to establish qualitative growth its means are twofold (at least): First, it is possible to change the production in order to produce a better output with less cost. Second, it is possible to synchronise production and market as to enable the production to react quickly to changes in the market, i.e. the consumer behaviour. One way to reach both aims is to reorganise the production, i.e. to segment the production: With the establishment of product oriented production units a cheaper production is possible (Maier 1993: 25). Economics owe the focus on the segmentation of production with all its advantages to Wickham Skinner (1969, 1974 and 1986). With his book The Focused Factory he provided the ground for what is nowadays discussed under the headline: segmentation of production. Skinner did not develop a new insight in efficient ways to produce; he transferred to the American and European auditorium what has been practiced in Japan since the beginning of Industrialisation. This paper deals with change; with the change in the way cars are manufactured. A car manufacturers production unit until now divided into different production lines has to be transformed into segmented production. This is a big change; a change, which has to be dealt with in other words, it, is a case for change management. The scope of this paper is therefore not limited to displaying the advantages of a segmented production (which nevertheless will be done in chapter 2), but extends further to the management of the respective change. Chapter 4 is devoted to the change management: How should the new organisation of production be implemented? What problems may occur? What solutions to the problems can be provided? These and more questions will be put and answered in chapter 4. In chapter 3 a brief overview of change management within the (alleged) broader framework of project management will be given. Chapter 5 sums the results obtained in the previous chapters and evaluates the va lue of change management. 2. Efficient production with segmented production units Segmentation of production is according to Wildemann a holistic approach, aiming at a better market- and product orientation of the firm (Wildemann 1998: 31). Therefore, it is necessary to link production units to a specific product. By that, the relation to Skinner is establish, who discovered the focussed factory for the Western Economies: a companys competitive strategy at a given time places particular demands on its manufacturing function, and, conversely () the companys manufacturing posture and operations should be specifically designed to fulfil the task demanded by strategic plans (Skinner 1969: 138-139). A focussed factory means accordingly flexible reactions to market changes and the cost efficient realisation of strategic plans, e.g. the development and introduction of new products. The focused factory is not a big factory. It is rather a small one where the different production units are linked to a specific segment of the market a specific product: A factory that focuses on a narrow product mix for a particular market niche will outperform the conventional plant, which attempts a broader mission (). Its [the factorys with the narrow product mix] equipment, supporting systems, and procedures can concentrate on a limited task for one set of customers. () Such a plant can become a competitive weapon because its entire apparatus is focused to accomplish the particular manufacturing task demanded by the companys overall strategy and marketing objective (Skinner 1974: 114). Given the fact (provided it is a fact) that smaller firms or factories are compared to bigger firms or factories and with respect to costs and production better off, it is not surprising that there is a considerable trend to segmenting the production. Furthermore, transaction costs within a small or segmented firm are smaller compared to the bigger ones. A transaction is the delivery of a property or good via an interface that can be technically divided. One activity ends another starts (Williamson 1990:1). While crossing the interface a sample of costs is produced costs that can be at least in parts avoided: The aim of a segmentation of production is to disentangle production units and capacity. Large units should be divided in small units. Teamwork should be establish small teams giving the individual employee more responsibility. This should result in more autonomy of the individual employee, and boost his or her motivation, thereby increasing the quality of the work done by the employees. In Germany, it was Dietmar Tress who conceptualised for the first time smaller units as an organisational structure. Smaller Units, so his thesis, reduce the time that is needed to produce a product. The lesser time it takes to produce a good or a product, the better the competitiveness of a firm, the better its ability to deliver goods and the smaller the amount of capital needed to produce the respective good or product. While evolving his thesis Tress realised the reasons that stood against an effective production. The reasons mentioned by Tress are: division of labour, old patterns of reasoning and bureaucracy (Feser 1999: 19). Having carved out the problems, Tress submit his solution: He proposes that all necessary functions (for the production) and the aimed link between product and demand should be concentrated in a single hand and that the production flow should be kept within reasonable limits (Tress 1986: 184). According to Tress it is decisive that the production flow is c lear, understandable, and transparent. A single employee should be able to single out his or her contribution to the product (Tress 1986: 185). Segmenting the production further provides capacity utilisation and to reach that goal teamwork is needed: Small groups of employees should work in a self-responsible way within decentralized teams. Furthermore, those teams should take over different tasks. At this point the interrelation between the discussion on segmenting production and the discussion on human resource management becomes obvious. According to Baron and Kreps (1999: 3) Human Resources are the key to organizational success or failure. Human resource management including the concepts of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may be seen as the countermovement to the alienation of the worker form the product of his work, as observed by Karl Marx in the 19th Century: Workers who contribute more broadly to a final product () are more apt to identify with a product and to reflect pride in its quality (Baron Kreps 1999: 317). Identification with a product raises the working morale, which means that the work satisfaction goes up. Worker or employees, who are content or satisfied with their work, work better. The determinants enabling this comfort are established by segmenting the production. And that is, where the problem starts: How can a segmented production be implemented? How can a factory divided in production lines become a focused factory divided in small working units or teams? The question at hand is a question of change management or project management. In the next part, the project of change will be unfolded. 3. Projects for managing change Change is something that happens all the time and everywhere. But change within a firm or to put it more scientifically change within economics appears to be a frightening prospect. Change cannot be left to itself; it has to be planned, controlled and coordinated. Problems, rising in the pursuit of change, have to be predicted, dangers for the project have to be identified and eliminated. All this is done by change management or within the (alleged) broader scope of project management. To put it differently, change management is the trial to direct change into the right channels. Project management is the trial to direct everything new within a firm into the right channels. It appears that there is not much difference between project and change management, one can almost say, they are different words meaning the same. A project is considered to be something unique, something that will not be repeated (Schelle 1999: 11). Project management means the totality of executive functions, the techniques, and means necessary to carry out a project. Replacing project by change, change management can be addressed as the totality of executive functions, techniques, and means that are necessary to alter something old into something new. At first it is according to most authors of the utmost importance for a change or project management to establish a structure plan, in which the implementation of whatever should be changed, is scheduled according to a time table connected with goals that have to be reached at a certain point in time. The structure plan is according to Schelle (1999: 93) a simple and useful tool. The structure plan is the meta plan. Apart from the structure plan there is the running order listing sub goals and so on. Once a project is initiated the control of the project is of crucial importance. A constant control is necessary to identify deviations from the plan or goal as soon as possible and to steer against unwanted consequences (Nà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½chter 2003: 377). Project control in this sense means to identify problems, to solve the problems, to recalibrate the project after some deviations from the plan occurred and to rescue the goal in spite of serious problems. Problems may emerge from different sources: Externalities may cause problems: Green activists may occupy the land that is designated to host the new factory, due to a seldom species of warbler. The construction of the new building itself may cause problems: A building contractor may file for bankruptcy. A delay in constructing the new factory may lead to an explosion of the costs and so on. Apart form those externalities there are sources that nurture problems within the firm: Employees may fear for privileges, for their job or for loosing power. Resistance to the change may arise from different sources all linked to the fact, that men is unwilling to change what seems to be good and worked well until now. And to convince employees of the benefits that come along with the new way of producing one thing is needed: change management. 4. From production lines to segmented production: An example Company R wants to segment its production. Being a car manufacturer organized in different product lines the company wants to become a focussed factory by establishing two production units each producing a specific type of cars. While segment A is chosen to produce the mini from start to end, segment B should produce the sport car. At the start of the change, company R is organised as follows in part 1 of the company the car body is being build, in part 2 the car body is being varnished and in part 3 the different parts of the car are being assembled. In the future company R shall be structured as follows: in line A the car body of the mini is being build, varnished and furthermore, the mini is being assembled; in line B the car body of the sport car is being build, varnished and assembled; At the moment three interfaces exist within company R: Between the car body builder, the varnish, and the assembler. Between these three parts of the company a steady flow of material has to be ensured. Furthermore, all three parts of the company depend on different suppliers. In the past a bottleneck between car body builder and the varnish has become a rule resulting in a temporarily standstill. So the new structure of the firm should guarantee a full capacity utilisation, by reducing the logistic efforts necessary to provide each of the three parts of the company with its amount of supply to avoid a standstill of machines and employees. Moreover, the link between company R and its markets should become closer. At the moment the company produces a monthly number of cars irrespective of the demand. If the demand goes up, the employees have to work overtime to satisfy the demand. If the demand goes down, the employees do their daily stint and the cars that cannot be sold were stored causing storing-costs. And this is where the project change comes into being. 4.1. Planning the change There are a lot of variables that administer a certain influence on the project deciding whether it is going to be a success or a failure. According to Eckrich (2003) two of those variables can be dubbed as structural and cultural conditions imposed by the environment within the firm or company. Structural conditions relate to the hierarchy within the company, while cultural conditions describe the way the employees within a company treat each other. Eckrich distinguishes cultural conditions into behaviour, attitudes and values, a distinction that reminds at concepts indigenous to social psychology. While social psychologists quarrel with each other on the relation between attitudes and behaviour (some of them even asking if there is any relation between both, cf. Six 1975, Bierhoff 1993: 280-288), Eckrich holds the opinion, that the behaviour of people is influenced if not determined by their attitudes, and by knowing the attitudes one can deduce the behaviour. Consequently, he recommends a questionnaire at the beginning of the change management project to discover the attitudes of the employees concerning the change of their working environment. Company R is a rather small company, employing 803 employees. It is best described as a company with flat hierarchies, stratified in management, departmental managers and masters. While the aim of this paper is to show the problems associated with the project change (or at least those that may be associated with the project change), I assume that the employees of company R take a critical stance to the change of the production, some of them even form a sort of resistance. Especially among the masters resistance is widespread. They fear they might loose responsibilities and some of them think they might even loose their job. The core of this paper is therefore concerned with what is called by Uebel and Helmke (2003: 415) escalations caused by individuals (personenbedingte Eskalationen). Escalations caused by individuals have to be distinguished from quantitative escalations and from qualitative escalations at least according to Uebel and Helmke (2003: 416). Of particular interest for this paper are escalations caused by individuals. (One might wonder if there are escalations which can be though of as being not caused by humans.) 4.2. Controlling the change Control is a matter of plan. To evaluate the progress of the project, the project manager has to look at the structure plan. He has to compare whether what has been reached is identical with what should have been reached. According to Nà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½chter (2003: 395) this is crucial, since it is the only possibility to identify deviation from the plan. To serve the purpose of early warning system the structure plan must be enriched with data, with the amount of time worked on a particular (interim) goal of the plan, with the state of the art and so forth. With respect to company R these rather general advices come to life: Important for the success of the segmentation in the company is an additional qualification of the employees. Furthermore, their work after the segmentation will be varied, i.e. they will have more different tasks to fulfil. This is in accordance with the results of the human resource management saying that employees that are not tied up in their daily routines, but kept busy with a bunch of different tasks show a higher degree of motivation and in the end do a better job than employees tied up in their daily routine. Independently from the results of the human resource management the change in company R is more than some can bear. For some employees the additional qualifications they are expected to achieve are a heavy burden and for the masters it becomes clear that the new structure of the company can only be reached by taking away the responsibilities from the masters. And in the end, Angst (fear) arises, and An gst (fear) is the widespread cause for resistance. 4.3. The problems of change Angst (fear) has been identified as the main reason of those showing resistance to the project of change. Following Uebel and Helmke (2003: 424), Angst (fear) can be subdivided into fear for power and fear for subject. While those with fear for power oppose the project due to their expectation that they will loose power, which means in the first place influence within the company, those with fear for subject oppose the project due to their expectation that they will loose responsibilities. The distinction is not a sharp, but rather arbitrary one. It is not obvious that the loss of responsibilities is not accompanied by a loss of power. However, those with fear for subject are anxious that they might loose reputation, end up with a smaller budget and so on. It has to be mentioned that Angst is a rather peculiar word for what is meant by Uebel and Helmke. They describe the common place that change has its pros and its cons. While change brings some advantages, some advantages of the old times will be lost. In other words, change may become a trade-off or worse, change might mean redundancy. Therefore, it is obvious from the very beginning that change management has to deal with problems. Problems are not something that arises as a matter of bad circumstances. Problems are the natural companion of change. In company R there are problems. The change of the production modus has been scheduled for spring and that was a mistake. In spring the demand for sport cars is high and a high demand and a different work environment is too much. The employees faced with frequent delays and the necessity to work overtime is dissatisfied. Resistance rises to protest. It starts with unofficial meetings held be employees and ends up in strike. The production stands still and so does the project. Change, it seems, has stopped. Uebel and Helmke write a lot about Angst (fear) and the different shapes it may use, and the risks Angst holds for the success of the project. But, as is the fact in company R, what can one do, if the problems are that massive that the project can be doomed to failure? Uebel and Helmke provide no answer. Instead they pronounce the value of plans for the crisis. One has to formulate worst-case scenarios within those plans (Uebel Helmke 2003: 428). Worst-case scenarios may be back or forward oriented. Backward orientation means that the problems can be solved and the goal of the project can be reached. Forward orientation means the contrary. The project is a failure and the plan has to include the plan X the withdrawal with as less causalities as possible. This provides no solution for company R. Is the change from line production to segmented production a failure? Is there a possibility to carry on? Hansel and Lomnitz (2003: 131-134) mention that there are no possibilities to reduce resistance with respect to specific goals of projects: An employee who will lose his job will not act in favour of the proposed change. To expect that, is out-of-touch. Furthermore, there are employees for whom it is dubious whether they will win or loose in the course of the project. So: resistance is natural and the only way to deal with resistance is communication and information. Transparency is the golden rule. The employees should know what change would bring, why change is necessary (Hansel Lomnitz 2003: 134-135). Maybe information can lead to a good end for company R. Rumours are the cause for concern in company R. Rumours about the real aim of the project being a job killer. Other rumours concern plans to reduce salary suspecting the hidden intention behind the plan to segment production is to cut down salaries. Those rumours may be dealt with in an agency theoretical framework: The relationship of agency is one of the oldest and commonest codified modes of social interaction. We will say that an agency relationship has arisen between two (or more) parties when one, designated as the agent, acts for the other, designated the principal, in a particular domain of decision problems (Ross 1973: 134). Starting from here it has to be considered that both sides face some information shortcuts, with the employees having no distinct knowledge of the goals pursuit by the management and the management having no accurate assessment of the behaviour of the employees during the course of the project and thereafter: In the course of the action some problems may arise due to the fact that information is not fully spread. The problems are labelled within the Agency theory as averse selection, meaning that one cannot be sure, if what the principal or the agent claims to provide is in fact what he can provide, moral hazard, which means that an agent or an principal can defect after the contract is established and hidden intention, speaking for itself (Krapp 2000). This excursion trip into the fields of agency theory results in the knowledge that Hansel and Lomnitz are right: The solutions to the problems the agency theory analysis is usually a form of information included in a contract. (Leaving the monitoring of the agent by the principal and the bonding of both to given promises aside.) So information, i.e. the spread of information may be a possible escape from the deadlock for the project change of company R. First, as a signal of confidence the project manager has been dismissed. He has proven to be unable to manage conflict. Under his rule rumour mill flourished and the actual state of the (project) art is much behind the expected state. The new project managers first act was to hold a meeting with all employees and to tell every single employee what he has to expect. In the end he succeeds in cranking the project. 4.4. The change or the end of the project In the course of the project experiences and knowledge should be collected for further or future change management, so as to learn from the errors made. The end of the project is marked by stocktaking. What has been reached is confronted with what should have been reached. Company R is nowadays a car manufacturer with a segmented production and therefore able to adapt its production in short time to the demand of the market. The segmented production started some weeks later than it has been scheduled, which is owed to the problems reported above. But the policy adapted by the new project manager has proven to function. He has succeeded in creating a common spirit and calming down the moods. The fact that work will be much more varied after the change has increased the motivation of most employees, the success of the project has become the intrinsic motivation for those employees: According to this survey, a large percentage of employees seem motivated at work by something other than the compensation received. () 72% responded that theyd continue to work even if they were already financially comfortable for the rest of their lives. Half the survey respondents agreed with an item stating that what I do at work is more important to me than the money I earn' (Baron Kreps 1999: 101). There is a specific quality inherent to work, a quality that is different from the motive to make a living. Intrinsic motivation stands for the fact that some or many or most of the workers want to do a work that is interesting, sophisticated, and provides a certain amount of reputation. Some of the employees of company R realised that a segmented production goes along with new job opportunities, with more responsibilities, with a flexible work scheme and so forth. Those employees made the change to their own project, a project they wanted to support and did support. 5. About change and its management The aim of this paper is twofold: on the one hand the subject is change management. But change management is a general concept, which one can describe in general terms as did Uebel and Helmke (2003). The problem is, that general terms despite sounding good have nothing to say about the management of change. Therefore, an example have been chosen to elucidate what change management really is. Change of a car manufacturers production from production lines to a segmented production, has been chosen as an example. The segmentation of the production is expected to be a project of change management that can often be found in reality. This is due to the advantages a segmented production provides its users with: a more flexible reaction to the demands of the market and a less costly production. Having established the example used to exemplify the change management it was necessary to describe what is known as project management. Thereby, it could be shown that the topics of project management and change management are not different as they both deal with new things that should replace old things. So it has been decided to treat them as equal. Then company R has been introduced. Company R is a medium sized company with flat hierarchies and massive problems occurring during the course of the change from production line to segmented production. The problems or escalations as some dub them are related to individuals, individuals or employees who resist for different reasons the proposed change. To deal with resistance and to provide the ground for the new organisation of the production is the task of change management. And, it appeared, that the best way to manage change is by adapting an open communication policy. This is what Hansel and Lomnitz propose and what has been derived from a brief look at the agency theory: Both sides trying to establish a deal have an information deficit on their side. Both do not know, if their counterpart is opportunistic in the sense of Williamson (1990), i.e., that he is trying to cheat. This is what the rumour mills in company R produced: the segmented production is a fake used by the management to cut down salaries, sack employees and rationalize the company. In the end, the project manager had been sacked and the segmented production had been established. The key to the solution was information and intrinsic motivation. Information had been provided by the new project manager, telling the employees that no one will be sacked and that salaries go if anywhere than up. Furthermore, the hint that a new organisation of the production provides new opportunities for qualification and new responsibilities raised the intrinsic motivation of many employees. They made the change to their project and supported it. And at the end of the paper a rule for change management can be derived: For a successful management of change it is necessary to involve the employees and to improve intrinsic motivation. 6. Literature Baron, James N. Kreps, David M., 1999: Strategic Human Resources. Frameworks for General Managers. New York a.o.: John Wiley. Beer, M., Eisenstat, R.A. and Spector, B., 1990: The Critical Path to Corporate Renewal. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School Press Bierhoff, Hans-Werner, 1993: Sozialpsychologie ein Lehrbuch. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer. Burghardt, Manfred, 2002: Projektmanagement. Leitfaden fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½r die Planung und Steuerung von Entwicklungsprojekten. Erlangen: Publicis Corporate Publishing. Feser, Bjà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rn, 1999: Fertigungssegmentierung. Strategiekonforme Organisationsgestaltung in Produktion und Logistik. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Università ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ts-Verlag. Hansel, Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½rgen Lomnitz, Gero, 2003: Projektleiter-Praxis. Optimale Kommunikation und Kooperation in der Projektarbeit. Heidelberg, Berlin, New York: Springer. Krapp, Michael, 2000: Kooperation und Konkurrenz in Prinzipal-Agent-Beziehungen. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Università ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ts-Verlag. Lewin, K., 1947: Frontiers in Group Dynamics: Concept, Method and Reality in Social Science; Social Equilibria and Social Change. Human Realtions, 1 (1); 5-41 Maier, Denis, 1993: Einfà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hrungsstrategien fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½r Fertigungssegmentierung. Eine empirische Untersuchung. Università ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½t Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen: Dissertation. Marshak, R.J., 1993. Lewin Meets Confucius: A Re-View of the OD Model of Change. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 29 (4): 393-415 Mintzberg, H., 1978: Patterns in Strategy Formation. Management Science, 24 (9): 934-948 Nà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½chter, Norbert P., 2003: Projektkontrolle. S. 375-392 in: Bernecker, Michael Eckrich, Klaus (Hrsg.): Handbuch Projektmanagement. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen, Wien: R. Oldenbourg. Nà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½chter, Norbert P., 2003: Projektsteuerung. S. 393-411 in: Bernecker, Michael Eckrich, Klaus (Hrsg.): Handbuch Projektmanagement. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen, Wien: R. Oldenbourg. Rinza, Peter, 1998: Projektmanagement. Planung, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½berwachung und Steuerung von technischen und nichttechnischen Vorhaben. Heidelberg, Berlin, New York: Springer. Ross, Stephen A., 1973: The Economic Theory of Agency: The Principals Problem. American Economic Review 63 (2): 134-139. Schelle, Heinz, 1999: Projekte zum Erfolg fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hren. Projektmanagement systematisch und kompakt. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen: dtv. Skinner, Wickham, 1986: The Productivity Paradox. Harvard Business Review 64, 55-59. Skinner, Wickham, 1974: The Focused Factory. Harvard Business Review 52, 113-121. Skinner, Wickham, 1969: Manufacturing Missing Link in Corporate Strategy. Harvard Business Review 47, 136-145. Six, Bernhard, 1975: Die Relation von Einstellung und Verhalten. Zeitschrift fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½r Sozialpsychologie 6, 270-296. Tress, Dietmar W., 1986: Kleine Einheiten in der Produktion: Wer wachsen will, muss kleiner werden. Fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hrung und Organisation 55, 181-186. Uebel, Matthias F. Helmke, Stefan, 2003: Eskalationsmanagement in Projekten. S. 413-429 in: Bernecker, Michael Eckrich, Klaus (Hrsg.): Handbuch Projektmanagement. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen, Wien: R. Oldenbourg. Wildemann, Horst, 1998: Die modulare Fabrik. Kundennahe Produktion durch Fertigungssegmentierung. Mà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nchen: TCW-Transfer-Centrum GmbH. Appendix 1 Theoretical Framework Phase Models of Organizational Change Any change process can be thought of as going through distinct phases or stages. The purpose of this section is to provide theoretical background information of phase models of change. Linear Models Linear models see the change process as linear, progressing from a present state, through a transition state to a future state. The implicit assumption is that the future state is more desirable than the present state. Lewin provided one of the early fundamental linear models of the change process. He observed that any living system is always in a state of change, but will tend toward a quasistationary equilibrium. (Lewin 1947: 15-16). The level of behaviour of the system at any moment is the result of two sets of forces: those striving to maintain the status quo and those pushing for change. When both sets of forces are equal, current levels of behaviour are maintained. In order to change the equilibrium, one can either increase those forces pushing for change or decrease those forces maintaining the current state. Lewin viewed the change process as consisting of three phases or stages (Lewin 1947: 34-35): 1. Unfreezing. This step involves the forces maintaining the systems behaviour at the current level. Unfreezing is accomplished by introducing information that shows discrepancies between behaviours desired by group members and those behaviours they currently exhibit. 2. Moving. This step shifts the system to a higher level of group performance. It involves developing new behaviours and attitudes through changes in structures and processes. 3. (Re-)Freezing. This step stabilizes the system at a new state of quasi-stationary equilibrium. It is accomplished through the use of supporting mechanisms that reinforce the new state, such as systems, structures and policies. The new equilibrium can thus be made relatively secure against change (Lewin 1947: 35). Circular Models While the linear models follow the European science, East Asian and Confucian traditions offer a very different theory of change. The model of change underlying Confucian philosophies was summarized by Marshak (1993). As shown in Figure 1, there is continual cyclical movement among the five elements that make up the universe. Movement is a natural process and occurs in a specific sequence. When it is out of balance or out of order, unfortunate consequences result. Thus in this model everything and everyone is interconnected and part of continuous cycles of change. Figure 1: Five agents cyclical change according to East Asian philosophy (source: Marshak 1993:399) Appendix 2 Theoretical Framework Overview of the Three Forces for Change In the literature of organizational change, there is a widespread disagreement whether change should be implemented top-down or bottom-up. Top-Down Direction Setting Top-down change is seen to have the advantage of a clear direction towards an end state, to provide the integrated perspective that only top management can provide and to promise rapid change. However, top-down change can often lead to resistance and lack of commitment from middle managers and employees who might feel that top management does not really understand the problem. With regard to the RM Division, it becomes clear that management follows a top-down approach. RM`s general managers take major decisions on new technology an workers are not included in the decision-making process. The result is a lack of commitment and machine operators use any means they could to beat the system. Bottom-Up Performance Improvement The other line of argument favours a bottom-up approach to change, as this seems to address many of the shortcomings of top-down change by actively involving employees in the change process. But also a pure bottom-up approach has its problems. It often lacks direction and a link to corporate strategy, it can lead to costly duplication of effort, it often leads to little transfer of learnings and it can be slow to get results (Beer et al. 1990: 68). The RM Division did not follow a bottom-up approach for implementing the change. It is worth mentioning at this point that the RM management missed, as a result of not actively involving the employees into the change process, to address the disadvantages of a top-down approach. In addition, the above-mentioned advantages of a bottom-up approach were not realized during the change process. Horizontal Process Redesign Recognizing the limits of the pure top-down or bottom-up approaches to change, some authors have therefore argued that the solution is to combine the two approaches (Beer et al.1990). A combination of the two approaches holds the promise of obtaining their respective benefits while minimizing their disadvantages. However, it is argued, that fundamental change requires not only top-down direction and bottom-up performance improvement, but also a third force for change: horizontal process redesign. Horizontal process redesign views organizations as made up of key processes that produce a result for the customer. It attempts to bring the benefits of process thinking to the whole organization and emphasizes the importance of redesigning a small number of core business processes that cross the traditional functional boundaries. Likewise, it can occur at three levels: across organizations, across functions and within functions (see Figure 2). Horizontal process redesign sees reengineering as a key activity at all levels of the organization. However, in order to avoid sub-optimisations, one should start at the top management by mapping out the high-level processes first. In this way, once the subprocesses are considered, their role within the higher level processes are clear. This was not being realized at the RM Division: Instead of defining and explaining the new processes to the workforce, only immediately prior to the introduction of the new technology management had explained to the workforce the basic principles behind automation, disregarding the need for understanding the new processes. Particularly a proper introduction of the new core processes across functions was neglected. These mainly included the fact that previously, operators were involved in setting and adjusting machinery and now were simply operating their machines. At the same time, the process control department was to take greater responsibilities, and to be expanded. Would management have explained the new processes properly, operators would have been clearer about their role in regard to the process control department. Instead they found themselves in a favourable position, performing wider functions than management expected of them. In addition, they could use non-optimum methods to achieve the best possible piecework rates for subsequent production and only reluctantly gave up any rights to use the controls. This all can be seen as a result of a missing explanation of the redesigned core processes to the workforce. The second major problem was that of re-establishing piecework rates on the new machinery, because operators were enjoying average earnings and resisted this move. At this point it would have been helpful to establish a detailed timeframe in which the phases of the change process are listed, in connection with the procedure of handling the piecework rates during and after each phase. The basic agreement, which was being made, did not serve this purpose.